The Illogical Layering of ‘Black’ Identity: From African and Bantu to Moslem and Mfengu

A 2021 Pew Research Centre survey found that “a large majority of Black Americans say that being Black is extremely or very important to how they think of themselves.” However, the lingering question is: what exactly is ‘black’ identity? To deal with this question, this article focuses on perhaps one of the most complex, controversial, and ludicrous propositions in human history, which has been a gallant attempt to establish people’s identities over many centuries to date.

The process of allocating people to rigid identity boxes encompasses various issues, including place of origin, race, DNA and tribal affiliations. In broader terms, identity is intricately linked to birthplace, ancestry, race and genetic makeup, shaping individuals’ sense of self and societal connections. These are largely man-made constructs that often prove very problematic because they are rubbish, inaccurate and inconsistent, varying greatly across time and places.

Identity can be a source of both empowerment and understanding, but it can also fuel conflict and exclusion when different identities clash. This tension is evident in global political conflicts, such as the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the Palestinian genocide, the Tigray War (Ethiopia), and Rohingya persecution (Myanmar), often rooted in identity issues. Inasmuch as the system of apartheid in South Africa was economic, it heavily evolved around fictitious racial and tribal identities that persist to this day.

One of the main challenges of identity is that it is never fixed and can evolve depending on many variables. This dilemma is explicable using the paradoxical situation of Irish Catholics in the US in the nineteenth century. In ‘How the Irish Became Black’, Natalie A. Zacek explores the historical process through which Irish Catholic immigrants in America faced discrimination and social marginalisation, stemming from their second-class status back home under English Penal Laws.

Despite their own history of oppression and revolutionary roots, many Irish Americans collaborated with the dominant culture to block the abolition of slavery in their quest for acceptance. Upon hearing of their stance, in 1843 Daniel O’Connell wrote: “Over the broad Atlantic I pour forth my voice, saying, come out of such a land, you Irishmen; or, if you remain, and dare countenance the system of slavery that is supported there, we will recognise you as Irishmen no longer.” This example illustrates the tragic consequences of oppression, where one marginalised group collaborates in the oppression of another to secure a better position within a white-ruled society.

In South Africa, the apartheid government created a complex racial hierarchy, placing the white tribe at the top and the ever-elusive black at the bottom. Unlike the ‘one-drop rule’ in the US, South Africa further categorised the blacks into ‘Coloured’ and ‘Bantu’. The latter was then subdivided into various identities like Tswana, Venda, and Xhosa, which further included Mfengu, Mpondo, and Thembu. The urban versus rural divide also determined how people interacted with each other.

Apartheid and American slavery stand out as two of the most tragic chapters in human history, stark examples of how race has been weaponised. Thus, this article raises questions about the indiscriminate application of the racial category ‘black’ across diverse contexts, contributing to an illogical layering of identities. It also argues that the base layer of this flawed system is a generic ‘African’ identity, while tribal affiliation forms its supposed peak.

Additionally, the article contends that navigating this ‘black’ identity forces people to confront nonsensical constructs. These labels lump together people from the vast continent of Africa despite their vastly different backgrounds. The famed black identity and many slogans associated with it like ‘I am an African’, ‘I’m black and am proud’, ‘Black lives matter’, ‘Shumela Venda’, ‘100% Zulu’ and ‘Mopedi thwii’ exemplify this complex layering of identity within the black communities.

Identity and history of the expansion of the empire

Throughout history, imperial empires have been deeply intertwined with the concept of identity, particularly in colonised territories. They fostered a false sense of unity among their people through shared culture, religion, language or even citizenship. However, conquered peoples faced a complex choice: assimilate, resist or create a hybrid identity blending their own traditions with the imperial ones. Even today, they are trapped within the borders of Westphalian states they did not create, further complicating their identities and relations among themselves.

Moreover, the borders of empires across the African continent particularly played a role, creating a sense of ‘us vs. them’. The British established the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium in Sudan and merged previously separate regions with distinct ethnicities and cultures. The north was predominantly Arab and Muslim, while the south had a mix of Christian and animist African ethnicities. The British favoured the North in terms of administration and development, creating a sense of marginalisation in the South. This north-south divide fuelled resentment and suspicion.

Empires often justified their expansion through narratives of superiority or a civilising mission, further shaping their own identity and how they viewed those they ruled. Even today, empires’ legacies continue to influence how people see themselves and the world around them. Central to this project was the racialisation and tribalisation of people, thus creating identities that never existed before imperialism. In the case of Sudan, the imposition of Arabic and Islamic law in the south further intensified the feeling of being outsiders within their place of birth.

Sadly, discussions regarding ‘black’ or ‘African’ identity centres around slavery, colonisation and apartheid. These experiences forced people to rally around imposed identities as a way of fostering unity. There is a surprising lack of knowledge about the rich history of ‘sub-Saharan Africa’, stretching back millennia. This vast region, encompassing a breathtaking diversity of cultures and peoples, is often treated as a monolith.

Even the name ‘Africa’ is arbitrary: the categorisation that lumps together people and their rich histories obscures a more complex truth. Notions of ‘bantu migrations’, monolithic megatribes, standardised languages and fabricated cultures and identities were all formalised constructs serving colonial empires, not reflections of Africa’s true essence. These layers represent an ever-complex identity built to be junior to the white race as well as other races.

The African or black identity illusion – A misnomer

Science and academics from diverse fields, such as anthropology, history, and genetics, played a key role in this ‘black identity layering project’. It is worth noting that the history of genetics, for example, is incredibly pernicious in two dimensions: evolution and biology are rooted in colonial expansion and racism. Adam Rutherford, author of books including Control: The Dark History and Troubling Present of Eugenics, argues that biology “emerges in service of European expansion, of political ideologies, of empire.”

More specifically, genetics emerged out of the political ideology of eugenics in the 19th century, popularised by Charles Darwin and Thomas Robert Malthus. Rutherford also claims that “there is more genetic diversity within the African continent than in the rest of the world put together, which means that on average someone from Senegal is more different genetically to someone from Angola than either of those people are to anyone else from the rest of the planet.”

This reality highlights one of the inherent issues pertaining to the categorisation of individuals. Furthermore, the term ‘black people’ is often utilised, tracing back to Linnaeus’ classification of Homo sapiens as sapiens afra or africanus. However, this categorisation proves biologically incoherent due to the extensive genetic diversity present among individuals from Africa and the African diaspora.

This biological diversity becomes particularly significant when considering the context of the transatlantic slave trade. During this period, individuals hailing from potentially neighbouring tribes, regions or countries were forcibly uprooted from their places of origin, amalgamated aboard ships and subjected to conditions where survival or demise hung precariously in the balance. Also, they were subsequently dispersed and subjected to forced mating practices.

Advancements in genetic research have shed light on the genetic makeup of African Americans and also revealed a notable presence of European DNA, predominantly contributed through male Europeans intermixing with female African Americans. Conversely, it is noteworthy that a significant proportion of white Americans also exhibit measurable African ancestry in their genetic composition, with estimates reaching up to 20%. At the end of the day, tribal or racial classifications and identities are bogus than it is often acknowledged.

Transatlantic slave trade and the genetic lie

With all the peculiarities, biases and inaccuracies, Black Americans undertake ancestry tests that would supposedly assist them in tracing their heritage back to particular tribes in Africa. This is usually a very emotionally charged affair: some prominent individuals are now linked to fictitious ‘tribes’ in Gabon, Mali and so on. This whole saga is extremely unsettling because it represents an unfortunate misdirection of the struggle of African Americans in crafting their own stories after the trauma of displacement and slavery.

Ancestry test results often oversimplify complex histories, which can be exploitative, especially for those whose histories were erased by slavery. The transatlantic slave trade resulted in the loss of ancestral ties for millions, further exacerbated by dispersal and familial disruption in the Americas. Despite this exploitation, demand for ancestry testing remains high among African Americans seeking to reconnect with their roots.

Given the complex genetic makeup of Africa’s various populations, as discussed earlier, tracing African American ancestry is more like chasing waterfalls. The distinctive genomes of African Americans reflect the realities of centuries of displacement and forced migration. This complex history makes their genetic makeup significantly different from that of their African ancestors.

In How to Argue with the Racist, Rutherford explores these complexities, grappling with the exploitation inherent in the commercialisation of ancestry testing. He also explores the historical roots of racism and exposes the flaws in racist pseudoscience. This means that African Americans’ quest to find an identity through a tribe has been oversold to create illusions, in the same way tribes have been promoted in Africa. Based on nothing, tribal affiliations are an illusion that must be rejected with the contempt they deserve.

In summary, this article dismantles the idea of a single ‘black’ identity, revealing its layered history and limitations. Rigid racial categories and tribal affiliations, often colonial inventions, obscure the rich diversity within Africa and the diaspora. The article argues for celebrating this diversity, rejecting simplistic labels, and approaching identity with nuance. It also highlights the broader issue – blackness excludes other dark-skinned groups like Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and Andamans. Ultimately, the call is for a more inclusive understanding of identity that moves beyond these limiting categories.

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